Carl Jung’s Theory on Personality

All across America, literacy and early nurture of children has baffle the cerebrate of concern for p atomic number 18nts, t from apiece oneers, and policy makers. Education has been positively linked to assimilators approaching success in civilize, their desirelihood to continue education past postgraduate take, and their future cargoner opport unit of measurementies. A strong proveation in course session and linguistics is a key factor in childrens pedantic growing and future opportunities.As a resoluteness, a great deal of time, money, and cleverness has been invested in designing political syllabuss that focus on developing childrens acquaintance and use of the incline diction in order to provide them with this needed educational foundation. However, upon close inspection, it seems as though m any an(prenominal) of these platforms focus on correcting yet one or two of the many factors at shape in the issue of illiteracy in Americas urban youth. go a var iety of knowledge programs are available in almost every school, there are still a fundamental number of illite pasture and struggling assimilators across the nation. Of particular concern is the school preparation of children from economically disadvantaged alkalis children who continue to fare slight(prenominal) easily in school than much advantaged children (Stipek 711). 40% of Americas fourthly marker learners lack basic breeding skills, but the illiteracy rate emergences to 68% for low-income rural and urban areas (Literacy Rates).Research has sh take in that children who grow up in unretentive, urban areas engagement the most with culture for a variety of reasons. Despite large federal and state investments in compensatory education programs, persistent performance gaps among students of various(a) heathen, socioeconomic, and linguistic backgrounds have been difficult to close (Neuman 92). This shows that resources are available to schools and districts tha t flavour issues with low literacy rates, but the problem persists. In a study of gaps in reading acquirement by Parkinson and Rowan, statistical analysis was done on the test get ahead of high-, average-, and low-risk students upon entering kindergarten by means of the revoke of third grade (Neuman 80).Placing these lots on a statistical normal curve helped take in how much the gap among these conventions increased as education progressed, and showed substantive evidence that socioeconomic factors uphold the education of young children. These test scores were then utilise for nevertheless statistical analysis to determine the add together of additional control time it would take at-risk students to reach the same achievement level as average and low-risk students.By sharp the standard deviation of each groups test scores, Parkinson and Rowan were able to then convert that to months of additional charge necessary to decrease the gaps in reading achievement. In order to match high-risk students achievement with that of average-risk students, 1. 6 months of extra teaching method would be necessary at the start out of kindergarten, but by the end of the third grade, the time had increased to 4. 7 months. When study high-risk and low-risk students achievement, 2. months of tuition were needed at the beginning of kindergarten, whereas the end of third grade involve 7. 8 months (Neuman 80). While Parkinson and Rowan acknowledge variations and possible issues with the data they peaceful and analyzed, these calculations still show the effects of socioeconomic factors on educational achievement. In a similar study by Stipek and Ryan on disadvantaged preschoolers and faculty member indigence, this education gap is explored as a result of lack of motivation.Surveying and calculating the schoolman achievement of several classroom groups in preschool and kindergarten proved a similar gap in academic achievement to that found by Parkinson and Rowan. The results of this study paint a clear picture of children from relatively low-income kins beginning school at a considerable academic disadvantage (Stipek, 720). by dint of several cognitive assessments of skills including problem solving, reading, and language skills, this study attempted to account where students of low socioeconomic backgrounds struggled the most.Statistically of import differences were found in each of these assessments for each age group, so to come along investigate these results, motivation and gender factors were inquiryed as well. In contrast to the determinations on cognitive variables, the results revealed almost no motivation deficits for the economically disadvantaged children (Stipek 721). What little differences were found connected to gender were lofty and did non designate any real pattern of academic achievement. While this study ooked into gender and motivation as factors in academic achievement differences, these proved insignificant to explain the achievement gap between students of variable socioeconomic backgrounds. Rather than continue to focus on individual factors, like gender and motivation, that had been proven to have little significance in explaining the education gap, other queryers have taken up the banner of family pastime and firm environment on childrens academic victimisation.According to McLoyd and Purtell, contemporary esearchers tend to fancy links between family income and home environment within an investment sham (i. e. , the notion that income is associated with childrens breeding because it enables families to invest in the human superior of their children by purchasing materials, experiences, and services that benefit the childs development and well-being) rather than within a cultural deficit model (Neuman 58). argument behind this focus can be found in the biography of urban areas and the families that live in them, presented by Shirley Heath.In the article Oral and literat e Traditions Among Black Americans Living in Poverty, Heath explains, in the late 1980s, virtually half of all Black children lived in poverty, and most of these, especially in urban areas, grew up in households headed by a mother to a lower place 25 years of age who was a school dropout (Heath, 3). She continues to explain how ethnic groups, linguistic differences, and religious or regional factors can make finding trustworthy childcare difficult for single mothers, putting further pecuniary strain on the environment.Financial strain can have a ostracise effect on the focus put on education in homes with both parents and/or high socioeconomic stipulation. This can to a fault chafe family bonds and leave students more vulnerable to the presence of drugs and other negative inner-metropolis influences. By getting involved in drugs, gangs, and other harmful influences, education is forgotten, disabling academic achievement and future opportunities, and prolonging the cycle of po verty in pitiable urban households.While Heath explains the prevalence of this cycle of poverty through inter arrests and face-to-face perspectives she collected, Manuel Bueno explains the many and persistent affects it has on early childhood development. A shortage in early childhood development will have irreversible consequences on individuals future lifetime opportunities. This will reverberate later in life in the form of lower quality jobs, lower wages, shorter life-spans, worsened health and lower cognitive abilities, thus perpetuating an intergenerational cycle of poverty (Bueno).Unlike many articles regarding early childhood development, Bueno also acknowledges the importance of non-nuclear family structures, emphasizing the importance of involving a childs primary caretaker rather than the mother or father. curiously in poor urban areas, a household can take on members of the extended family just as often as it can cast away a childs biological parents. Bueno suggest s creating early childhood development programs that are both multi-faceted and family inclusive.The most successful of the programs Bueno suggests is referred to as parenting programs that work to implicate parents in childrens education to give them an active and responsible bureau in their childs development, and provide reinforcement at home for the things contracted in school. The value of these programs is also emphasized by a number of other authors. Charles R. Greenwood is one of the forerunners in the argument for the ecological-interactional-developmental model that investigates the home environment effects on early childhood development.He explains the Hart and Risley economy utilise to measure individual childrens growth in schooling to talk as well as the childs language environment, consisting of parents, siblings, and friends talk heard by the child in the home and intercommunicate directly to the child (Neuman 116). By recording audiotapes of conversations and interactions, Greenwood was able to analyze these observations use Hart and Risley Code. Similar observations and analyses were made in classroom settings to study students responses to instruction.These findings were compared to those found in the home environment, where Greenwood explains some interesting connections. through the use of Hart and Risley, Greenwood was able to find that children from families of low-socioeconomic status were spoken to less frequently and with fewer words. Children from similar socioeconomic statuses also scored lower on vocabulary tests and struggled with basic academic skills, which crippled their early literacy and school discretion by kindergarten age. By this research, Greenwood was able to conclude that children from low ocio-economic status were less exposed to language and therefore did not learn as much. get ahead investigation showed that this put a strain on the childrens school readiness, resulting in an education gap similar to that found by Parkinson and Rowan, which grows as students progress in their schooling. Class wide peer instructing is a program developed and implemented by several researchers, including Greenwood, to investigate whether or not students of lowsocioeconomic status families respond better to one-on-one instruction with a tutor outside of the classroom.For ninety minutes a day, four days per week, students met with a tutor on top of fastness instruction to complete lessons in reading, spelling, and math instruction. Results indicated that these lessons significantly modify students classroom engagement during instruction and trim socially inappropriate behavior, while accelerating reading, language, and mathematics performance on regularise tests (Neuman 125). Once the positive impact of this supplemental instruction was established, further research was proceeded with peer- aid learning strategies in which students share the role of teacher in microscopical reading groups.Thirty- five to forty-five minute sessions were conducted daily, in which students were broken up into groups of one-third to practice reading aloud to each other. Individual points are awarded and group totals are used to determine a winner each day. The contiguous affects this peer- abeted strategy were significant increases in accuracy, fluency, and comprehension of the material read by students (Neuman 122). After explaining the details of both the one-on-one tutoring and peer-assisted learning strategies, Greenwood discusses their effectiveness as the results showed about 59% of participants exceeded the achievement of non-participants. Students in urban settings, from low-income backgrounds, and of minority status experienced larger gains than students from suburban middle- to high-income backgrounds (Neuman 126). It was also noted that younger students were touch greater than older students. This study shows that while peer tutoring and one-on-one instruction outside the classroom can improve student achievement, it cannot be used as a panacea for the achievement gap. While Greenwood put his focus on supplemental instruction programs to improve literacy in students from low socioeconomic households, Come andFredericks chose to investigate the involvement of parents in reading programs. They claim that poor families avoiding schools is frequently perceived by educators to be a lack of paternal interest in childrens education and, upon investigation of an inner urban center Georgia school, found that 45% of the children had no one to read to them at home (Come 567). This school had developed several programs designed to help increase the self-esteem of children through agnate encouragement and involvement in literacy development.One program designed to acknowledge parents in childrens reading was a periodic rewards system. If a student read with a parent for at least(prenominal) fifteen minutes each day for a month, it was marked on a calendar, submitted to the teacher, and the student was rewarded for his or her accomplishment, boosting confidence and reading proficiency. This program was assisted by a school wide track record stand in, in which the students themselves improved approach shot to new reading material. When they brought two books to school, they could exchange one book for a book to keep and the other for a book to present to their classroom library (Come 569). Accompanied by a cross-age reading program that paired students in different grades for cooperative reading groups, this book exchange reinforced by parental involvement proved to have significant improvements on childrens reading aptitude in the inner city Georgia school. These programs proved to be useful in the development of students reading ability and confidence, as well as the involvement of parents in their childrens education.However, inner-city schools are frequently a melting backside of ethnicities and languages, which can put more strain on ch ildrens education if schools do not include language development in reading programs. In a study done by William change intensity, a meet called Literacy in its Place was investigated to compare literacy programs in rural and urban schools. initial research suggested that the reported difference in urban and rural scores could be explained by differences in social class distribution between the country and the city (Louden 1).When these factors were taken into account, surprisingly little significance was found. Instead, it was found that children from working class homes, specifically homes in which English is a chip language or dialect, were more academically disadvantaged than other students. Louden focuses the rest of his research on professional development for teachers to better assist multilingual students and their parents become actively involved in mastering the English language and developing reading skills. While this supports the consensus of the previously discussed authors that hildren from low-income homes struggle more with school, it introduces language development as a new focus for further research. Mahiri and Sablo introduce research into language as a factor in academic achievement and literacy by analyze the voluntary writing of African American students in a California high school. This study was initiated because, in our overall quest to look at ways that African American and youth grow could be used as a nosepiece to writing development, we wanted to learn more about the kinds of writing these students do for their own purposes outside of school (Mahiri 165).In this case, writing is seen as an outlet through which students are free to express themselves in whatever vernacular they are most comfortable with, without conforming to school standards or expectations. By investigating students use of language in out-of-school settings, Mahiri and Sablo hoped to better link what schools view as important and meaningful in lessons, and what students find meaningful in their daily lives.In this study, it was found that minority students were predominantly in basic and academic classes, as opposed to honors or advanced placement, and performing well beneath the average scores on standardized tests. Statistics provided by the school, which remained unnamed, showed a 44% failure rate for African American students that began as freshman there. by means of an analysis of several pieces of literature written by the students included in the research, and the methods for instruction used by their teachers, little connection was found to suggest culturally relevant topics were being included in instruction.Students were applying information obtained at school to improve their skills and express themselves, but instructors made little causa to do the same. The teachers included in the study recognized that urban culture and schools were changing and that these changes would require them to adjust as well, but were having trouble doing so. Mahiri and Sablo also recognize that including culturally relevant material in school instruction and literacy activities would not solve the problems students faced with literacy development.However, their research suggests that it may help with the development of language and reading skills by giving students something that they can relate to and substantiate based on their own interests. Ernest Morrell addresses this in the article, Toward a Critical didactics of Popular Culture Literacy Development among Urban Youth. Ernest Morrell, a former teacher in urban schools, claims that low academic achievement is not the result of a lack of interest, intelligence, or other person-to-person factors in urban students.Instead, he suggests that the issue lies with a lack of access to curriculum and resources. workings from the correlation Mahiri found with urban youth literacy practices and the types of practices emphasized by schools, Morrell suggests that any invest igation of habitual culture must emanate from and serve the interests of members of marginalized groupswhere students and teachers learn from and with one another while engaging in authentic dialogue that is centered on the experiences of urban youth as participants in and creators of popular culture (Morrell 2).As an example, he explains programs he designed and used in his own classroom, where hip-hop culture, popular film, and the media were incorporated into each unit. When beginning a unit on English rhyme, Morrell introduced the importance of learning the context in which poetry was written to obtain a better understanding of the literature. The same mentation was applied to hip-hop and rap music that students in the class were beaten(prenominal) with.For the final project, students were given rap songs to choose from and interpret based on contextual concepts and interpretations that apply to English poetry. As a result, students were inspired to score their own rap/poe try, and were able to better engage with the material because it was trussed to larger social issues they could relate to. A similar idea was used in units on popular film and actual media. Several movies tie in to books and assigned reading material were watched in class while students took notes comparing characters, writing styles, and story structure.News segments were also watched to help students analyze portrayals of stories in the media, conduct interviews, and complete a research project on a current topic in the news. Based on his observations of the students in his classroom, Morrell found that small teachers and teacher educators can use classroom-based research to prove that there are ways to meet the challenges the new century offers and turn them into opportunities to connect to the worlds of students, to put forward academic achievement, and to prepare students for critical citizen ship in a multicultural democracy (Morrell 4).Through an investigation of current studies being done on reading programs and language development in urban schools, it is easy to see what students struggle with and why. Students from urban neighborhoods tend to be poor working families where English may not be the primary language. Some researchers have interpreted the struggles of these students as a lack of involvement from parents and programs have been designed to better include them in their childs education. While these have proven to be somewhat successful, they do not solve any issues beyond change magnitude parental involvement.Other less successful programs have been designed to increase students access to school resources, thinking that increased access will increase reading comprehension and proficiency. While this also proved somewhat successful, it can only be applied to schools where budget issues do not limit those resources. Family structure, student motivation, and gender have also been investigated as possible factors in the literacy of urban youth, but proved to have an insignificant effect.The most successful research and program development has been a result of combined individually researched ideas. growth programs that incorporate popular culture has proven to engage students better than regular classroom material and often on more a personal level. Peer tutoring and other cooperative learning programs have proven to be somewhat successful because they allow students to encourage each other in their responsibilities, but this can by further increased by the cellular inclusion of popular culture in the material.These ideas, in addition to increasing parental involvement and increasing students access to resources, have had the most significant impact on education and literacy development. It is the incorporation of urban culture into education that further research should be conducted on. By understanding what is important and relevant to students and including that in their education, a platform can be created from which literacy and language skills can be developed.